Ethanol may be one of the most familiar substances in daily life, but behind every bottle of vodka, vial of medicine, or vial of perfume lies a history that spans thousands of years of human ingenuity. From ancient breweries to cutting-edge chemical plants, ethanol’s journey is a story of discovery, refinement, and innovation.
The First Biotechnology: Fermentation
Ethanol is often considered humanity’s first chemical biotechnology. Archaeological evidence points to the brewing of alcoholic drinks as early as 13,000 years ago, with traces of a primitive brewery unearthed near Haifa in Israel. Here, the simple fermentation of sugars into alcohol marked the start of an enduring relationship between people and ethanol.
The principle was simple, but poorly understood: natural yeasts, given the right conditions, converted sugars from grains or fruit into alcohol. For millennia, this process remained more art than science — a mystery that produced intoxicating beverages but little consistency or clarity.
Wine, Fire and the Origins of Distillation
Ancient natural philosophers knew that wine was flammable, hinting at the presence of a volatile substance within. Distillation technologies slowly advanced, but it wasn’t until the 9th century AD that true progress was made.
The Persian chemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, often regarded as the father of chemistry, discovered that boiling wine with salt produced a more flammable liquid. What he had created was a more concentrated form of ethanol — an early step towards distillation.
Over the next 300 years, these techniques were refined. By the 13th century, the Italian physician Taddeo Alderotti pioneered fractional distillation, producing spirits with alcohol concentrations as high as 90%. Similar breakthroughs were happening in China and India, underscoring the global nature of ethanol’s evolution.
The Birth of Pure Ethanol
The leap from concentrated spirits to pure ethanol came much later. In 1796, chemist Johann Tobias Lowitz achieved the first reliable purification of ethanol. By using alkali drying agents and careful low-heat distillation, he was able to separate ethanol from impurities — producing it in a truly pure form for the first time.
Shortly after, the chemical structure of ethanol was determined, with Scottish chemist Archibald Scott Couper publishing one of the earliest examples of a structural formula in chemistry. For the first time, ethanol was not only a substance used in daily life — it was a molecule understood by science.
Synthetic Ethanol: From Accident to Industry
The first synthetic ethanol was discovered almost by accident. In the early 19th century, Michael Faraday produced ethyl hydrogen sulphate by passing coal gas into sulphuric acid. His contemporaries Henry Hennell and Georges-Simon Sérullas later showed that this compound could be decomposed into ethanol, foreshadowing modern acid-catalysed hydration of ethylene – the foundation of synthetic ethanol production today.
This discovery marked a turning point. No longer bound only to fermentation, ethanol could now be produced through industrial chemistry, paving the way for large-scale supply.
From Ancient Breweries to Global Supply Chains
Today, ethanol is a cornerstone of multiple industries:
- Beverages: the neutral base spirit behind vodka, gin, rum, and ready-to-drink cocktails.
- Pharmaceuticals: a multifunctional excipient used as a solvent, preservative, and processing aid.
- Food & Flavours: a carrier for extracts, flavourings, and colourings.
- Cosmetics & Personal Care: a key ingredient in perfumes, sanitizers, and skincare products.
- Industrial & Energy: from biofuels to specialty solvents.
From ancient brewers experimenting with wild yeast to modern distilleries and chemical plants producing millions of litres, ethanol has remained one of the most enduring and adaptable molecules in human history.
Looking Ahead
Ethanol’s story is far from finished. Advances in biotechnology, sustainability, and green chemistry are driving a new chapter, from cellulosic bioethanol to carbon-neutral production methods. What began in ancient breweries now shapes global trade, modern healthcare, and the future of renewable energy.
Ethanol is more than just a product – it is one of humanity’s oldest innovations, and one of its most important building blocks for the future.